Characteristics of the City
Towns and cities first appeared in river valleys in Ur, Nippur and Mohenjodaro.
Cities are the centres of political power, administrative network, trade and industry, religious institutions and intellectual activity, supporting various social groups such as artisans, merchants, and priests. Ancient cities could develop only when there was surplus agricultural produce to feed people engaged in non-food activities.
The modern city worldwide has developed over the last 200 years.
Three historical processes that shaped modern cities:
- The rise of capitalism.
- The establishment of colonial rule over large parts of the world.
- The development of democratic ideals.
Industrialisation and the Rise of the Modern City in England
Urbanisation changed significantly due to industrialisation. Western countries were largely rural even many decades after the beginning of the industrial revolution.
Early Industrial Cities:
British cities such as Leeds and Manchester attracted a large number of migrants to textile mills in the late 18th century.
Major types of industries employing people:
- Clothing and footwear
- Wood and furniture
- Metals and engineering
- Printing and stationery
- Precious products like surgical instruments and watches
Marginal Groups
- Crime became a widespread concern in London.
- Authorities imposed high penalties for crime and offered work to the deserving poor.
Women’s Status
- Lost industrial jobs due to technological developments.
- Worked from home by taking lodgers or performing tasks such as tailoring and washing.
- By the 20th century, women joined wartime industries and offices.
Children’s Status
- Many children were pushed into low-paid work or resorted to stealing.
- The Compulsory Education Act of 1870 and Factory Act of 1902 restricted child labor.
Housing
Industrialisation led to a massive migration towards London. Individual landowners built cheap and unhealthy tenements.
Finally, worker Mass Housing Schemes were introduced, leading to the construction of single-family cottages.
Cleaning London
- Efforts made to decongest localities.
- Green Belts introduced around London.
- Pollution reduction initiatives undertaken.
Transport in the City
- Slums highlighted the urgent need for better housing.
- Rent control was introduced during World War I.
- The London underground railway was developed.
Social Changes in the City
Urbanisation transformed the family unit, leading to increasing isolation.
The Chartism Movement demanded voting rights for all adult males.
Leisure and Consumption
- Cultural events such as opera and theatre.
- Libraries, art galleries, and museums showcased British history.
- Cinema emerged as a popular form of entertainment in the early 20th century.
The City in Colonial India
Urbanisation in India was slow under colonial rule, with only 11% of Indians living in cities in the early 20th century.
Bombay: The Prime City of India
Bombay was originally controlled by the Portuguese and later passed to British rule.
- 1819: Became the capital of the Bombay Presidency.
- 1854: First cotton textile mill established.
- By the mid-1950s, housing and water supply crises emerged due to unplanned city expansion.
Land Reclamation in Bombay
- The Back Bay Reclamation Company reclaimed land for commercial use.
- New areas were built over as the population grew.
Bombay as the City of Dreams: Cinema and Culture
- Bombay became the film capital of India by 1925.
- Harishchandra Sakharam Bhatwadekar shot India’s first movie in 1896.
Challenges of the Urban Environment
Pollution caused smoke-related illnesses and environmental damage.
Despite efforts like the Smoke Abatement Acts, pollution remained difficult to control.
Conclusion
Despite its various challenges, cities such as Calcutta remained symbols of opportunity and freedom.